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Covariates include maternal age, race/ethnicity, and insurance status (primary payer: private insurance, Medicare, Medicaid, self-pay/uninsured, or other), and maternal and infant medical conditions, including diagnoses of the following complications of pregnancy, labor, and delivery: diabetes in pregnancy (both diabetes mellitus and gestational diabetes; ICD-9 codes 6488XX, 250XX), hypertension in pregnancy (including pre-eclampsia and eclampsia; ICD-9 codes 6420X, 6421X, 6422X, 6423X, 6424X, 6425X, 6426X, 6424, 6425, 6426, 6426XX), hemorrhage during pregnancy or placental complications (including placenta previa and placenta accreta; CCS code 182), fetal disproportion or obstruction of labor (CCS code 188), and fetal distress (CCS code 190).
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